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2. Intimate Speakers: Why Introverted and Socially Ostracized Citizens
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Biju
P R
Author,
Teacher, Blogger
Assistant
Professor of Political Science
Government
Brennen College
Thalassery
Kerala,
India
My Books
1. Political Internet: State and Politics in the Age of Social Media,
(Routledge 2017), Amazon https://www.amazon.in/
2. Intimate Speakers: Why Introverted and Socially Ostracized Citizens Use Social Media, (Fingerprint! 2017)
Amazon: http://www.amazon.in/dp/
1. Political Internet: State and Politics in the Age of Social Media,
(Routledge 2017), Amazon https://www.amazon.in/
2. Intimate Speakers: Why Introverted and Socially Ostracized Citizens Use Social Media, (Fingerprint! 2017)
Amazon: http://www.amazon.in/dp/
What are Roman contributions to political thought?
It is virtually
impossible to overestimate the historical contributions of the Roman Empire to
modern society. The legacy of Roman art, architecture, literature and
philosophy is visible today throughout much of Europe and the rest of the
world. In the area of political theory, the Romans made long-standing
contributions: cosmopolitanism, secular, sovereignty, law and citizenship.
Separation of Law and Religion
Before the Roman Republic, religion and law were deeply
intertwined. Priests and other religious officials served as both spiritual
leaders and rulers. Monarchs were seen as enforcers or executors of divine law
rather than as lawmakers. The Roman legal system changed that. According to
Professor John Mathai of the University of Calicut, the Roman state actually
made its own laws separate from and independent of religious law. Secular law
became the foundation of European legal systems for generations to come.
The Roman Concept of Citizenship
A second essential Roman contribution to political theory
was the concept of citizenship. Before the Roman Empire, early states tended to
view all people under their control as essentially equivalent. The Romans
changed that by establishing multiple legal codes. One set of laws applied only
to Roman citizens. It guaranteed rights and privileges that were unavailable to
people in conquered territories under Roman control, according to the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The distinction between citizens and outsiders
endures in our modern society.
Laws
Roman civil law
laid the foundation for the civil law of many modern countries. Some of its key
concepts have remained influential: citizenship and citizenship rights,
equality under the law, innocent until proven guilty, that the burden of
proof rests on the accuser, not the accused, the right to a trial, the right to
appeal and that unfair laws can be repealed.
Cosmopolitanism
The word
‘cosmopolitan’, which derives from the Greek word kosmopolitês
(‘citizen of the world’), has been used to describe a wide variety of important
views in moral and socio-political philosophy. It is the idea that all human
beings, regardless of their political affiliation, are (citizens in a single
community. Different versions of cosmopolitanism envision this community in
different ways, some focusing on political institutions, others on moral norms
or relationships, and still others focusing on shared markets or forms of
cultural expression. It is the universal community of world citizens functions.
A positive ideal to be cultivated. Versions of cosmopolitanism also vary
depending on the notion of citizenship they employ, including whether they use
the notion of 'world citizenship' literally or metaphorically. The political
culture idealized in the writings of Plato and Aristotle is not cosmopolitan.
In this culture, a man identifies himself first and foremost as a citizen of a
particular polis or city, and in doing so, he signals which institutions and
which body of people hold his allegiance.
In fact, the
first philosopher in the West to give perfectly explicit expression to
cosmopolitanism was the Socratically inspired Cynic Diogenes in the fourth
century BCE. It is said that “when he was asked where he came from, he replied,
‘I am a citizen of the world [kosmopolitês]’” (Diogenes Laertius VI
63). By identifying himself not as a citizen of Sinope but as a citizen of the
world, Diogenes apparently refused to agree that he owed special service to
Sinope and the Sinopeans. So understood, ‘I am a citizen of the cosmos’ is a
negative claim, and we might wonder if there is any positive content to the Cynic's
world citizenship.
A fuller
exploration of positively committed philosophical cosmopolitanism arrives only
with the Socratizing and Cynic-influenced Stoics of the third century CE. These
Stoics are fond of saying that the cosmos is, as it were, a polis, because the
cosmos is put in perfect order by law, which is right reason. They also embrace
the negative implication of their high standards: conventional poleis do not,
strictly speaking, deserve the name. Stoics believe that goodness requires serving
other human beings as best one can, that serving all human beings equally well
is impossible, and that the best service one can give typically requires
political engagement.
Things are a bit
different for at least some of the Stoics at Rome. Roman Stoics extend
citizenship to all human beings by virtue of their rational This is a moderate
Stoic cosmopolitanism, and empire made the doctrine very easy for many Romans
by identifying the Roman patria with the cosmopolis itself. But
neither imperialism nor a literal interpretation of world citizenship is
required for the philosophical point. Cicero's De Officiis or of
Seneca's varied corpus explicitly acknowledges obligations to Rome.
Sovereignty
"Sovereignty is the quality of having supreme,
independent authority over a territory." Wherever sovereignty is
exercised, there is government. In other words, this principle has existed
since the beginning of governments and nations. Its principles have come from
time immemorial down through the corridors of history and practice and can be
seen in the ancient books of antiquity. Absolute, indivisible, inviolate, and
inseparable sovereignty cannot be divided, mutated, discarded or obliterated
rightfully unless it is done willingly. But the point is, sovereignty is all or
nothing in reality or by construct. It reigns supreme as the highest principle
of governmental power on earth.
Endnotes
Epicureans
Like the Cynics,
the Epicureans were not primarily concerned with politics, though they offered
a more complex evaluation of its origins and nature, and a more nuanced
recognition of its instrumental value. Politics was not, for them, part of the
good life or a fulfillment of human nature as it was for Aristotle. A sticking
point for Epicurean ethics and politics is the justification for a further
dimension of communal life: the willingness to sacrifice oneself for a friend,
or to risk breaking the law for the greater good of one's fellow citizens.
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